Labor and Birth Case Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Labor and Birth Case Review - Essay Example The process included conducting a pelvic exam in order to determine how the patient was progressing (Stevens, 2004). Notably, the active stage was faster than the latent phase with the patient experiencing contractions in every two minutes. However, the contractions were more painful. The transition to second stage began when the cervix dilated to about 8 – 9 cm. Second stage By the time the second stage started, the baby’s head had appeared at the top of the cervix. It is worth noting that the mother was advised on when to push. Notably, uterine contractions were also getting stronger (Tharp, 2000). With assistance from abdominal muscles contraction together with mother’s pushing, the baby passed through the birth canal. It was noted that active pushing played a significant role during the stage. More importantly, an epidural anesthetic was administered in order to make the mother to manage the abdominal muscles better. Consequently, crowning occurred as the inf ant filled the lower vagina. After the head was out, then the shoulders followed, and the baby’s mouth and nose was suctioned in order to ease the baby’s first breath. Third stage During the final stage of labor, the continuing uterine contractions push the placenta out of vagina. ... This called for use of a stethoscope known as fetoscope. Consequently, after child birth, the patient was given some pain relief. This involved an epidural being placed in the patient while she lay on her side. Then her back was scrubbed with antiseptic, while the local anesthetic was injected in the skin. The anesthesia provided complete pain relief. Natural birth preparation The patient together with the family selected Lemaze method for preparing for childbirth. The method entails practice of breathing exercises together with concentration at a focal point (Tharp, 2000). This was done to assist the patient to control her pain while at the same time being conscious. In addition, the method made the flow of oxygen possible in the baby as well as to the muscles. I coached the mother during the birthing process. Conclusion The birth process was successful as expected. The mother did not experience any complications although the baby was noted to have heart murmurs. All in all, all the procedure that are involved in the birth process were a success. References Korte, D. (1992).  A good birth, a safe birth. Harvard: Harvard Common Press.   Stevens, L. R. (2004). "Gimme a C: Is Choosing a Cesarean Section for a Nonmedical Reason Wise?"  Fit Pregnancy  April-May: 40-42. Tharp, A. J. (2000).  This giving birth: pregnancy and childbirth in American women's writing. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.   Evidence based care Evidence based care refers to an evidence based solution that addresses a clinical dilemma and calls for defining the problem, in addition to conducting an efficient search in order to obtain the best evidence (Walsh, 2007). This is then followed by appraisal of the evidence, which is then

Virginia Woolf | Femininity, Modernity And Androgyny

Virginia Woolf | Femininity, Modernity And Androgyny Showalter, Elaine, Virginia Woolf and the Flight into Androgyny, in A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontà « to Lessing (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), pp. 263-297. In A Literature of Their Own, Elaine Showalter discusses the female experiences and their creative processes in British fiction. She shows how womens literature has evolved, starting from the Victorian period to the Modern one. She has written notes on the descriptive life of Virginia Woolf in this particular book. Showalter described the female literary tradition in the English novel and the social backgrounds of the women who composed it. Chapter 10 of the book, under the title: Virginia Woolf and the Flight into Androgyny, is devoted to the literary genius of Virginia Woolf albeit the maniac depression. This chapter conveys information about Showalters concerns beyond women writers and looks at the contradictions and tensions that shape womens social, psychological, and sexual development. It is bound to provoke disagreement, if only because it raised so many questions related to womens position in the literary world. Showalter criticizes their works for their androgynistic nature s. For all its concern with sexual connotations and sexuality, the writing avoids actual contact with the body, disengaging from people into a room of ones own. In the light of this, Showalters well-known critique of Woolfs founding of an aesthetic upon the ideal of androgyny should itself be critically reconsidered. Showalter argues throughout the chapter that Woolfs androgyny represents an escape from the confrontation with femaleness or maleness, and that her famous definition of life as a luminous halo, a semi-transparent envelope is another metaphor of uterine withdrawal and containment. The false transcendence of sexual identity, or in Showalters phrase, the flight into androgyny amounts to evasions of reality and of the female experience, and this is presumed to result in Woolfs progressive technical inability to accommodate the facts and crises of day-to-day experience, even when she wanted to do so.  [1]  What is posited in Showalters stress on confrontation, sexual ide ntity or experience is what we might term a Lukfsian concept of a unified autonomous subject which is the sole agent of its own development in confrontation with the environment. The chapter analyses the androgyny, in general, as an escape of their (women) sexual identity as a woman or/and even as a return to heterosexuality which makes the world go round as Marcus pointed out,  [2]  differently of what many other critics in general say that Woolfs androgyny was subversive and feminist in nature and not as Showalter described as. Gilbert, Sandra A, Costumes of the Mind: Transvestism as Metaphor in Modern Literature. In Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism. Ed. by Judith Spector (Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986), pp.70-98. Susan Gilbert argues that most modernist male writers in English were concerned with reasserting, in a profoundly conservative sense, the dominance and superiority of masculine sexuality, as well as mans prior claim to masculinity. The post-war assertion of masculinity constituted a male intervention into a broad general field of language and culture rather than the nationalist linked militancy of earlier periods. The readings by Gilbert shape a convincing argument that a number of fictional episodes sometimes regarded as liberating and innovatory were concerned with the reassertion of conventional gender roles and heterosexuality rather than sexual revolution. Men represent an attempt to close off the possibilities for the change in womens roles opened up by the events of the First World War, Gilbert claims. The problem is that Gilberts mode of criticism assumes a direct link between the sex of the author and the text. Rather than investigating the way in which writing reveals an in conclusive ambivalence about sexual identity, Gilbert insists on assigning a single position to male modernist writers. Women writers were, for the most part, with the exception of Virginia Woolf, omitted from the modernist canon constructed by literary critics in the nineteen fifties and sixties. Literary production functioned as a framework in which issues about the rights of women were foregrounded, at the same time as they explored the gains and losses experienced by women during that time. On the other hand, the fictions of Virginia Woolf, in particular, depict the difficulties of achieving a sense of female identity, and beyond that, the impossibility of finding any final, stable identity for the subject. Her texts represent the fears, and reconstruct the problematic issues of being a woman, as well as the pleasures of femininity and masculinity, in such a way as to bring into question celebratory and empiricist theories of feminist criticism. Whitworth, Michael, Virginia Woolf and Modernism, in The Cambridge Companion to Virginia Woolf. Ed. by Sue Roe and Susan Sellers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 146-63. Throughout her fiction and criticism, Woolf expresses a preference for a reality which is semi-transparent, combining the solidity of granite and the evanescence of rainbow. Though many critics have seen in modernism an irrationalist rejection of science in favour of myth, in the case of Woolf at least, the situation is more complex. (2000:151) In his essay, Michael Whitworth discusses the significance of issues such as science, politics, and contemporary culture which are discussed in relation to modernist writings. It is pointed out that critics have long neglected the significance of Virginia Woolf in such contexts. The kind of insight into dual reality that Whitworth notices in Woolf attracts more critical attention in recent studies of Modernism, especially knowing that it was not only Woolfs case that the situation was complex but also that many artists, writers, and thinkers of different disciplines, scientific or artistic, of the era shared a strong interest in various fields of science such as life science, eugenics, physics, psychoanalysis, and so on. Moreover, his text delineates the custom to make a modern writing, Modern. The text draws, quite precisely, the use of science in the narratives of fiction of early twentieth century including with a long analyses over Virginia Woolfs works. Farwell, Marilyn R, Virginia Woolf and Androgyny. Contemporary Literature, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Autumn, 1975), 433-451. For Virginia Woolf, androgyny was inseparably linked with a nostalgic wish to evade sexual difference even as she made the affirmation of sexual difference the basis of a radical sexual politics. Androgyny represents, in Woolfs writing, ambivalence and contradiction: if it could be used to redress the imbalance of patriarchal accounts of history, then the invocation of the female body as an answer to that imbalance only affirms constructions of sexual difference. Farwells essay, Virginia Woolf and Androgyny discusses Woolfs theory of androgyny. He debates the relation between the etymology of androgyny and its institutionalization into the narrative frame of Modernism. Giving examples from the novel A Room of Ones Own, Farwell points out that androgyny appears to be either an inter-play of separate and unique elements or a fusion of one into the other [] ad, unfortunately, most critics implicitly choose one side or the other trying not to see the important distinction which is crucia l. His essay brings together various instances of critical thought that have problematised an understanding of androgyny by interrogating the assumptions about gender which many critics and scholar are dealing with. Johnson, Reginald Brimley, Some Contemporary Novelists (Women), (London: Leonard Parsons, 1920), pp. 140-160. Virginia Woolfs essay Modern Novels, which under its later title Modern Fiction became so famous as a manifesto of literary modernism and which constitutes the prelude to Woolfs own most distinctive artistic achievement, was not a sudden revolutionary argument with no wider literary context. In Some Contemporary Novelists (Women) published in 1920, in a chapter dedicated to Virginia Woolfs writing, Johnson discusses an emerging trend among the female novelists of the early twentieth century: [She] has abandoned the old realism She is seeking, with passionate determination, for that Reality which is behind the material, the things that matter, spiritual things, ultimate Truth. And here she finds man an outsider, wilfully blind, purposely indifferent. This trend he called New Realism. The text refers mainly to Dorothy Richardson and it is not clear whether or not Brimley Johnson had read Woolfs Modern Novels, but clearly states Richardson account of this New Realism which searches for a new vision or truth behind the veil of masculine materialism institucionalized in the Modern era. It also states Woolfs demand for a new literature. But for Woolf herself at this stage, this new literary vision pertains to a new generation; it is not gender-specific. She periodizes literary history by the reign of monarchs spiritual Georgians against crassly materialistic Edwardians not by the difference between sexes. Johnsons text clearly illustrates the transience that happened inside out Modernism, expressing the most valuable analysis on Woolf and Richardson in their own right. Williams, Raymond. The Politics of Modernism: Against the New Conformists (London, 1989), (The Found Era: London, 1972), pp.45-53. Women writers were, for the most part, with the exception of Virginia Woolf, omitted from the modernist canon constructed by literary critics in the nineteen fifties and sixties. Raymond Williams in his intriguing but well written paper remarks that [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] there is still a radical difference between the two generations: the struggling innovators and the modernist establishment which consolidated their achievement. (51) He suggests that there was a distinct time gap between the production of primary texts and academic and commercial institutional responses, although he does not investigate the extent to which this gap was distributed in terms of the gender of writers. While womens participation in literary productivity in the nineteen twenties and thirties increased, it did so in the context of extensive social and political debate about the rights of women to education (including sexual education), to political power, and to earn a living of their own and in which Woolf wa s far ahead off. Literary production functioned as a framework in which issues about the rights of women were foregrounded, at the same time as they explored the gains and losses experienced by women during that time. On the other hand, the fictions of Virginia Woolf, in particular, depict the difficulties of achieving a sense of female identity, and beyond that, the impossibility of finding any final, stable identity for the subject. Her texts represent the fears, and reconstruct the problematic issues of being a woman, as well as the pleasures of femininity and masculinity, in such a way as to bring into question celebratory and empiricist theories of feminist criticism. Williams discusses the subversive female desires in which most of Woolfs novels are intrinsically focused in a clearly and well presented way. Abel, Elizabeth. Virginia Woolf and the Fictions of Psychoanalysis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London, 1993), pp. 1-29. Virginia Woolf is now usually thought of as a feminist author. Yet the term feminist has a number of meanings, and it is worth considering in what ways the word applies to Woolf. In both her own creative practice and her essays, she shows herself to be a keen advocate of women as writers and of a womens literary tradition. Her literary politics are certainly feminist. In terms of content, it is also clear that Woolf asks questions about womens art, the nature of female consciousness, and the means of literary presentation that must be developed to make the nature of a feminine consciousness visible. Abel pinpoints Woolfs interest in the fictional shapes narrative project on which women were present. Disclosing Woolfs discourse on gender and history, Abel contextualizes it with the idea of psychoanalysis in mid-1920s, opening up discourse over the subject much awaited. This particular chapter treats the progress of psycho-analytic studies, womens position in England during 1920s and w hat is meant to be a woman in such a society. It also reveals Freuds idea of the Oedipus complex and so forth. Connected with the idea that if the male writer suffers self-consciousness as an aspect of the general experience of modernity, with its dissolution of tradition, its skeptical, even nihilistic testing of old sanctities and pieties, then clearly the woman writers sense of the injustice of womens position in society, with its temptations of bitterness, denunciation, resentment, reinforces the danger, Abel is exploring what was Woolfs second dissatisfaction with the modernist texts and what is worth reading. The chapter (En) Gendering History, is slightly complex but precise in what modernism versus history and psychology regard to.

Does Competition Benefit in Business? Essay -- Business, Competition

Does Competition Benefit in Business? Do businesses want to grow and advance, or remain at a standstill with production? Most say they want to grow and advance. This topic is important in the business standpoint. Shall business managers promote competition or not? â€Å"Smart business professionals use competition to their advantage† (Pearson 1). Businesses who use competition notice the positive effects later down the road. Seeking to thrive and grow, businesses need to promote competition and compete against the other firms in their business. â€Å"There’s nothing like a little competition to suddenly boost productivity† (qtd. in Penn 1). Although some critics argue that competition may develop a negative atmosphere in the workplace, businesses should promote competition in order to function in a changing society, establish efficient performance, and enhance their customer’s satisfaction. Businesses should promote competition in order to function in a changing society. America seems to grow bigger structurally and technologically everyday. Businesses need to keep up with these advancements. Designing and selling top quality products for America, competition challenges businesses to create a better future. When competition arises between two industries, the sight of competing drives consumer business to the industry that successfully lowers the prices on their products. Successful industries remain up-to-date with society becoming top-notch in the field they compete in. Competition teaches businesses what will work in their market and what will not work. The consumer demand for products always appear no matter what. How industries produce that product determines how successful the business operation becomes. â€Å"Compet... ...ometimes goes another route and leads to productivity decrease. If business professionals enforce competition in their business, the aspect of getting the job done efficiently reappears almost instantly. In this day and age, the human society with the will to win is absent. People are lazy and avoid the competition. If employers employ the right people for the job with the right mindset who are willing to work diligently and efficiently through all struggles involving business, then they want competition in and around their firm. Competition, tough and non-regrettable, is not for the lazy worker, so if employees want to see productivity in their business then they find the right people who know how to work hard. So if a business wants to see itself grow and establish, then the right answer to see these gains involves a little bit of external competition.

Consumerism and the Environment Essay

Consumerism is a concept that was created before the Great Depression, which, by definition, means â€Å"the concept that an ever-expanding consumption of goods is advantageous to the economy; the fact or practice of an increasing consumption of goods†. In other words, consumerism has meant the transformation of citizens into shoppers. In fact, after the tragedy of 9/11, we were not asked to sacrifice or work hard in order to defeat terrorism, we were asked to go shopping. (Barber, 2008) Buying more products may help the economy but it is not good for the environment. Statistics show that the act of consumerism has negatively affected the environment and made a sustainable future very difficult. With the threat of overpopulation and the increased consumption of food and natural resources, our environment may not be able to sustain future generations. In looking at the statistics of consumption in America over the years, we have doubled or tripled our consumption of food and natural resources in the last 50 years. One of the root causes of our environmental problems is hyper-consumption. We simply buy too much of what we don’t need and often even what we really don’t want. According to Globalissues. org â€Å"half of the world lives on less that $2 a day† and WorldWatch. org or World Watch Institute states â€Å"12% of the world’s population lives in North America and Western Europe and accounts for 60% of private consumption spending†. The statistics of consumption in America is disturbing. Putting the consumption of food aside, global oil production is currently about 81 million barrels a day and is predicted to fall to 39 million barrels a day by 2030 due to diminishing resources. Seager, 2007) In 50 years and as these resources doubled in consumption, carbon dioxide levels increased over 20%, which is very harmful to our environment and the ozone. The world’s population needs to realize that consumerism is affecting the environment in very bad ways and people need to start changing the way they live and buy in order to help save the environment. The effect of consumerism to the environment has been well documented over the years. From fuel consumption to polluted air, a damaged ozone and massive waste and garbage dumped, our environment has taken a lot of hits. The increase of natural fuel over the last few decades has many people wondering what the world will do if we run out. The answer is simple. We need to transform the way we use fuel into re-usable, environmentally friendly fuel. That is easier said than done, but massive change is never easy. We also have to look at what damage this consumption is doing to the air and the ozone layer. The effect of ozone layer depletion often seems as if it is a far away problem. In reality, the weakening of the Earth’s protection from radiation has implications that spread across the planet. The Environmental issues caused by ozone layer depletion will ultimately affect everyone. (Ozone Layer Depletion, 2012) According to statistics, the holes in the ozone layer are getting bigger year by year. There may not be a way to reverse the damage that has been done, but we can prevent more damage just by making simple changes. The US produces nearly 230 million tons of trash per year and less than one fourth of it is recycled and the remaining garbage is burned. If we put a proper plan in place, we could recycle 70% of this waste and dramatically decrease the demand virgin resources. There are several environmental agencies that actively seek to make a change for the better. There is no one person or group able to make decisions that are binding upon all or even most of the participants in a movement. This makes negotiation and settlement difficult, if not impossible. Getting more people involved in environmental activism does not mean they need or have to picket or protest environmentally unfriendly businesses, just to be aware and work on their own consumption. (Arquilla & Ronfeldt, 2001) With the massive increase in consumption and the negative effect on the environment, the American government and corporations are putting plans into place to protect our environment. For example, according to thewhitehouse. gov, â€Å"The Obama Administration is committed to protecting the air we breathe, water we drink, and the land that supports and sustains us†. The Recover Act Investments in our Environment is finding for programs and projects that will protect the environment. The National Ocean Policy helps preserve our oceans. The government is also working to reduce air pollution by setting ambitious new fuel economy standards for cars and trucks that will raise the miles per gallon usage and decrease carbon emissions. The government has also proposed national standards for mercury, arsenic and other toxic air pollution from power plants. There is also the proposal for the development of clean energy, which, should slow down if not stop the usage of natural fuel and also have a positive effect on the environment. None of these proposals or policies has been put into place as of yet, but it is good to know that the government is at least working on a solution. Not only is the government working on a solution but also several of the leading corporations in America have â€Å"gone green† to help protect our environment. Companies like Bank of America, McDonald’s, Home Depot, Wal-Mart, and many others have decided to look at the big picture and give our environment a little help. Most of these big companies were big environmentally unfriendly companies and either chose to go green or had to go green because of falling profits. They had to go green because when the public got wind of the waste the company’s business suffered quite a bit. There are several things that we, as a nation, can do to help our environment and to ensure that we have a sustainable future. First thing that we need to do is to try and reverse as much damage that has been done to our environment as possible. In order to do that, some major changes have to be made. According to science. howstuffworks. com, doing the following things could help the environment in tremendous ways: Leave your car at home at least 2 days a week; it could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 1,590 pounds per year. Recycle all paper and plastic. If an office building of 7,000 workers recycled all of its office paper waste for a year, it would be like taking about 400 cars off the road. Compost your waste. Composting will reduce the amount of waste that is put into landfills or burned and polluting the air. With regards to preserving sustainable resources, that problem is a little tougher to solve. Fossil fuels are a finite resource, which means it has a limit and when it is gone there is no replacing it. We have to find environmentally friendly fuels to replace fossil fuels. We also have to be careful with our food, water, and soil. Several studies have shown that even if rely on renewable resources like rainwater, we have to make sure that rate of consumption does not exceed how much can be produced. We have the knowledge to help save and sustain our environment and population. Ever since the inception of Earth Day in 1970, activists have lobbied to get governments, corporations, and regular people to see the damage that is being done to our environment. These activists are and have been working ever vigilantly to get the word out that the environment is in trouble. We are seeing it now with the holes in the ozone and the depletion of the natural resources. Our society has been built on consumption and the idea that more is better. In order to reverse this way of thinking we have to change the way we do things. It is a long and hard process but if everyone, including governments and corporations, would do their small part we will have a more sustained and healthy environment.

“Higher Learning” Reaction Paper

The film â€Å"Higher Learning† portrays the many prejudices and race issues that existed in America around 1995, when the movie premiered. The movie takes place at Columbus University, which serves as a fictional university undergoing the transition of America being a more diverse, free nation. From the time when America began its struggle with race and culture boundaries, people of the United States have shown their true beliefs towards other people who may look differently than they do; and the movie â€Å"Higher Learning† is a good example of the type of prejudices. Before the movie even starts, the title of the movie already promotes a message that lies in the title, â€Å"Higher Learning. † The title may suggest that, not only are students attending a university to gain more knowledge needed for the career they choose to pursue, but rather, obtain greater knowledge about life and living freely amongst one another without having race or culture boundaries. Students that are entering college are about to embark on a journey that will prepare them for real life adulthood. The title â€Å"Higher Learning† implies that being enrolled in college is not only for your academic development but also your social evolution. At the current time in the movie, when there were many race and culture boundaries that created conflict between people of different backgrounds; students, especially minorities, were being tested for real life situations by entering college. The way Singleton implements group of students of the same background around campus symbolizes the cultural divide between many different ethnic groups. The racial-ethnic groups that were all the minorities on campus were always seen together and rarely separated. Throughout the movie, many groups of students from different ethnic backgrounds often experienced altercations with each other. Two of the main groups that clashed throughout the movie were the African American students; some of whom involved themselves in the Black Panther organization, and the white supremacist group who recruited Remy from the university. Throughout the film we notice the extreme change of two students, Malik and Remy. Malik who is a gifted track athlete, attending the school on a cholarship, is a African American freshman whose views of different race and cultures are mature, whereas his attitude towards himself being a black track star are immature. We do not see him stereotype other students in the very beginning of the movie; however, we do notice that other students who were not African American acted differently toward Malik and they showed fear an d also hatred towards him. One person who builds hatred toward Malik is Remy. Remy is a white freshman student who is enrolled in the university and is not involved in anything. Remy is placed with an African American roommate and in the beginning of the movie. Remy quickly develops hatred towards the perceived ignorance of his roommates and his friends. Remy then distances himself from his own room and falls into the arms of a group of white supremacist who would like to have him join the group. Shortly, Remy is brainwashed into the group’s ideology that the group of white males promotes. The group of white supremacist displays their ethnocentrism of white people. Malik and Remy are caught in altercations throughout the movie, in which Singleton uses to cause rising action towards a climax that ultimately causes the belief that students have to change. Also, Malik, being involved in these situations, develops some frustration towards the beliefs and acts of Remy and the white supremacist. I believe that Singleton uses these rising actions as a symbol of the way that our environment can influence us and can sway our thoughts on issues. For example, Remy is vulnerable when he becomes an outcast after been known for saying things out of the ordinary. However, he is approached by skinheads that mold him into their group beliefs and values. At first Remy is uncertain when he witnesses his new friends beating up people on Halloween but he is reassured by Scott, who is the noticeable leader of the group, that what they are doing is good and making society cleaner. From there on Remy grows into a skinhead himself that has determination to get rid of the minorities. Malik also undergoes a similar change, where he develops into an individual who shows hate towards white people. Malik also begins to stereotype and he exemplifies this when we notice him dodging his close friend who is his roommate and even tells him that they can’t be seen together. Singleton’s also portrays the different cultures that each group shares. As a group, members enjoy practicing their culture and enjoying the freedom that they have to follow through with their practices. For example, the African American students enjoy listening to their rap, hip-hop, and R & B, and when they play their music in front of people from a different background, more importantly, the white skinheads; they scold the African American students and seek to get rid of them. I believe that Singleton uses this act of other cultures displaying their values to symbolize that America is a free nation where everyone is free to their own beliefs and values; however, many prejudices exist and many people have trouble accepting a more diverse society. Over time, America has come a long way from when segregation of minorities was protested. Being a minority is more accepted in today’s society. Also, even in younger generations, I am beginning to notice that, now, we do not see the color of a persons skin at first. Stereotypes still exist, and it seems almost common nature for one to stereotype a person, but in today’s society, these concepts are more thought about and held back in respect for one another. As a college student, I do not walk around campus and see only groups that consist of only one type of race. When I see groups of people, many of them are more diverse than ever. You can still notice that many of the different races still cling together almost by instinct, however even sometimes these groups interact with each other and are more socially accepting of one another. The racial divide no longer seems to exist as much as it did from the movie. There still are some people out there that still practice ethnocentrism; however, in today’s society, these people are now mostly looked down upon and can be considered a minority group. The race and culture barriers that once caused so much devastating acts of violence and treatment against people of a different background no longer litter the streets of everyday activity. The few people that still have negative beliefs of people of a different race are now sunken into the background of society. Many of the negative words are now kept inside and are often kept unsaid. These words often remain unsaid mainly because in today’s society people who promote prejudices against different races are more than often looked down upon. In addition, certain words now have different meanings, some completely opposite of what they meant in 1995. The way people communicate with people of a different race has changed greatly. There may be preconceived stereotypes that people still carry with them due, mainly in part, to the environment one grew up in. However, people have learned to respect one another and issues with communicating with people of a different race have become more at ease, rather than being hostile. In some ways, however, there are some similarities that exist between the time frame of the movie, and present-day. People in today’s society still stereotype one another. The stereotypical thought is often the first thought that comes across our mind when we see a person of a different race. Over time, though, stereotypes have been slowly diminishing in society. Some other similarities are the groups of people. Although the way that students group with each other is not based so much on race anymore; larger organizations still exist in today’s society. One example of an organization is the Ku Klux Klan. Also known as the KKK, the Ku Klux Klan is a group that consists of only people from the white race. Their main purpose is to reinforce their belief that the white race is more superior to any other races. Other groups also exist in today’s society that practice the values that they believe. However, these groups are not so much outgoing anymore and the acts of violence that the groups committed in the past are rarely seen in present day. There were many points throughout the movie where a scene occurred that caused viewers the realize something. For example, in the scene where Malik is in a conversation with Fudge, Fudge explains to Malik that all the students of the same race only interact with each other and are rarely seen with students of a different race. After Malik is told this, at that point in the scene, Malik’s face turns stern and the music becomes more dramatic. I believe it is at that time where Malik realized the social barriers that existed on campus and also around the world. Another scene that came to be very important to me is when Remy is seen in the first step of him becoming part of the white supremacist group. In the scene Remy is seen studying outside on some stairs shortly after leaving his room due to his African American roommates playing loud music. At the time Remy is vulnerable and is in need of company. The leader of the skinheads happens to approach Remy in this time of need and Remy is convinced into following Scott, the leader of the skinheads. These two scenes in the movie are two of the few scenes that stand out the most to me. These scenes stand out the most to me from other ones because these are two points in the movie where the way the two students perceive people of a different race begin to be altered by their environment. I believe that Singleton incorporated these scenes and the way the two characters develop in order to symbolize the change in society by whom we may encounter in life and how that can impact our beliefs. Another scene that I believe is significant is at the beginning of the movie when Malik enters an elevator after a white student, Kristen, is standing in the elevator about to go up. During this brief scene in the elevator, after Malik get in the elevator, Kristen clinches her purse more tightly and her facial expression shows fear for Malik. This scene shows that at the time of the movie how people reacted towards one another. It is also a brief time where you can notice that Malik only shakes his head when he sees how people react towards him. I enjoyed the movie very much. The movie pointed out the harsh reality of the way society was in 1995, especially on a diverse college campus. The move portrayed many acts of violence that may have occurred in real life and it helps to raise our attention and realize how ignorant people acted toward each other. After watching the movie I hope that people who discriminate against other races and cultures can change the way they think. The movie made me feel grateful, as well, for the people who went through this hard time in America and got through it in a righteous manner. After watching the movie, I became more aware of what the current time era presented to people. And that was ignorance, violence, prejudices, and discrimination towards people who looked differently than that of one’s self. I have much respect for the people who had to go through so much trouble just because they were different. I also enjoyed the movie because Singleton incorporated scenes that may seem out of the ordinary is today’s society, but is what really happened during the days of America segregating. The movie â€Å"Higher Learning† is directly related to our Sociology course, in that the film’s main them is racism, and other sociological issues that existed in 1995. In our sociology class, we learn about the reasons why humans interact with each other in the way that they do. In the movie â€Å"Higher Learning† many issues arise such as racism and discrimination, as well as, prejudices and barriers. In our sociology course, we learn about these issues and other sociological concepts so that we understand the way society interacts.

Semi-, Demi-, and Hemi-

Semi-, Demi-, and Hemi- Semi-, Demi-, and Hemi- Semi-, Demi-, and Hemi- By Maeve Maddox A reader asks: †¨ Is there any rule for when to use semi and when to use half? The Latin prefix semi means half. The earliest semi- words documented in English are semicircular (1432-1450 and semi-mature (c.1440). Both William Langland (c.1332-c.1386) and Chaucer (c.1343-1400) use semi- constructions. According the OED, In the 16th-18th c., the number of permanent compounds was increased mainly by the accession of terms more or less technical [such as semicircle and semivowel]. Although theres no rule, sometimes half would be the better choice, as in this example from Fowler: This would be an immense gain over the existing fashion of a multitude of churches ill-manned semi-filled. Some common semi- words: semiabstract semiannual semiautomatic semicolon semiconscious Two other prefixes that mean half are hemi,-, from the Greek, and demi-, from Old French. In some English words, the French prefix is attached to an English word, as in demigod. Sometimes, as with demitasse and demimonde, the entire word is French. demimonde: n. The class of women of doubtful reputation and social standing, upon the outskirts of ‘society.’[Fr.; lit. ‘half-world’, ‘half-and-half society’, a phrase invented by Dumas the younger.] demitasse: n. a small coffee cup. [Fr., lit. ‘half-cup’] The prefix hemi is not as common as the other two. The most familiar word is hemisphere. Less common are words like hemicycle, hemistich, and hemitrope. In some contexts, the prefixes are used as nouns. Men in U.S. truck commercials rapturize over Hemi trucks. This use of hemi refers to a type of internal combustion engine that has a bowl-shaped or hemispherical combustion chamber. In England, a semi [sÄ•mÄ“] is a semi-detached house. In the U. S., a semi [sÄ•mÄ «] is a big truck of the tractor-trailer variety. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:20 Computer Terms You Should KnowList of Greek Words in the English LanguageComma Before Too?

Case study of HIV in South Africa

Case study of HIV in South Africa Introduction The HIV pandemic is considered as among the most destructive of health crises of the 20th and 21st century. The death toll from this scourge continues to rise as the search for a cure continues. The South Saharan Africa is among the hardest hit with up to 6.1 percent of the adult population living with the virus.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Case study of HIV in South Africa specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This percentage represents the infected population alone (Lori 1). The number of affected individuals include more men, women and children who depend or rely on the infected for livelihood. This saddening state of affairs is the foundation of my research that seeks to evaluate the HIV AIDS scourge as a human security concern. I will give specific regard to South Africa where at least 5.6 million people are living with the virus with an annual death toll of at least 310,000 adults. This makes South Africa among the most affected countries in the world. Among the middle-aged adults between the age of 15 and 49, the prevalence is up to 17.8 percent (Strode and Kitty 7). This has trapped the state between the local need to maintain and provide treatment for the infected and the international and global campaign to eradicate the disease. This has led to the formulation, implementation and adaptation of the various measures aimed at securing medical treatment and social acceptance of the victims while maintaining a margin of economic growth and social confidence. From the simplistic approach of human security, human sanctity and social responsibility, this research is inspired to take an analytical and critical approach in combating HIV and AIDS in South Africa as a human security concern. This approach provides for the individual role, duty and responsibility to safeguard and maintain a conducive livelihood (Parsons Pp. 1-83). Literature Review The human security concept is consid ered as being a historical as well as a contemporary concept that has survived the various eras and ideological regimes by undergoing through three main phases. The first was the simplistic and physical conception of weaponry and military hardware. This was motivated by the climax of the industrial revolution and the need to safeguard territory and boundary.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It was characterized by the two World Wars that saw an extensive destruction of property and human life. This negative side of the warfare led to the re-interpretation of human security on the onset of the Cold War that ushered in the second phase of the human security approach. This second phase was centered on capitalist ideology and post communism concepts. Human security was then considered as a representation of the value attached to social balance and coexistence amidst econom ic competition and differences. This era saw the signing of numerous treaties concerning various sectors and fields of interest for nations and states. It was characterized by the commencement and end of the Cold War along with the various anti weaponry campaigns that culminated in the Geneva conventions. This phase was however short lived as the focus suddenly changed to embrace the emerging contemporary concerns such as terrorism and pandemics. The interstate disputes were no longer a center of interest as more pressing concerns came up. Terrorism, poverty and civil conflict took the center stage and became the focal point for nations and international organizations. This change is fundamentally motivated by democracy and the need to enforce the principle of natural justice and rule of law across administrative regimes. However, there can never be a specific comprehensive approach that fully explains the concept of human security and the change in goal posts by the various theoris ts and research scientists. Though, there are pertinent commonalities and similarities in the various proposed approaches. Majority take a physical security approach to the human security concept advocating for the physical safety of members of society as being the correct interpretation of human security while others employ the dignity approach that advocates for security beyond the physical structural security of the person. The dignity approach suggests that it is the economic, social and political harmony that amounts to human security and ultimately social dignity (Donnelly pp. 85-111).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Case study of HIV in South Africa specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A harmony of these two arguments, appropriately reconciles the conflict between them since it is imperative that it is not enough to build a fortress around a city. There is a subsequent need to ensure that the political, social an d economic aspects of the territory being protected are worth the trouble. In the various respects, therefore the human security concept can be reconciled to be a balance between the military, physical, economic as well as the socio-cultural aspects that represents the development of dignity and ultimate prosperity. This balance is specifically exemplified by the South African history that dates back to the apartheid rule that sought to begin with physical security at the expense of the social and economic security. However, the lack of economic and political security slowly motivated the rise of civil unrest making it clearly insecure even for the physically secured areas. The liberation struggle marked the need for political and economic stability. This clearly the inadvertent interdependence between the two approaches to human security (Held pp. 53-72). Subsequently, the state has been left with little option but to operate under the compromise of both approaches. This has motiva ted the signing of the various peace agreements and treaties that have not only maintained political but social security as well as physical security by safeguarding economic growth. Modern research scientists take the concept further by advocating for the use of economic means to facilitate and secure human development and sanctity. This goes contrary to the capitalist adaptation that has seen human needs adjust to serve economic interests. They advocate for adjusting economic opportunities to serve human development. In this, pretext the individual access to reliable and cost effective healthcare facilities along with equitable access to opportunities for economic profitability locally and regionally builds up to the human security concept.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This line of argument sets the stage for the presentation of AIDS as a human security concern. It interferes and hinders the enjoyment of the fundamental precepts of human dignity. It causes a human resource shortage and limits the market potential of the available remaining human resource. This acts to hinder and deter the physical as well as the broader concept of human security. The human sanctity premise provides that every citizen has an equal intrinsic value. The premise proposes that every citizen has an equal talent value and is therefore entitled to an equal opportunity to contribute to social life. Human security on the other hand offers protection of the physical self and furthers the self-expression presupposition centered on human integrity. AIDS infects an individual but the community at large feels its effects. The failure or lack of effective measures by the government to control the spread of the pandemic amounts to a compromise of their duty to maintain physical se curity and by extension human security. It should therefore be the case that AIDS compromises human security in numerous respects (Booysen Pp. 125-144). Purpose of Research The primary goal of this research is to establish a connection and relationship between AIDS as a pandemic and human security. Human security will be approached from a personalized approach by discussing the obligation of individual institutions and persons such as the government, corporations and individuals. To achieve this, the research will establish a case for the relationship between the premise of human sanctity and human security as the link between the actors of HIV and AIDS and the responses to these actors in the context of the fight against the disease in South Africa. This will also offer a basis for the making of quantified conclusions and recommendations in policy and practice. Undeniably, the need for viable and justifiable policies and procedures for sustainable human security continues to increa se with the increase in the number of people infected with the virus. It comes at a time when South Africa continues to counter the effects of declining state sovereignty and increasing local demand for a stable political environment. This study therefore aims at providing a reliable solution to the procurement and protection of human security (Patton and Sawick Pp. 21-73). Research Question The limited access to sustainable livelihoods has become a serious motivator of the increasing number of cases of HIV infections. It leads to subsequent social structural instability that diminishes the standards of human security and sanctity. This study investigates the place of HIV/ AIDS as a human security concern in the context of the HIV AIDS scenario in South Africa. Research method This research engages secondary information that has been accumulated for two years on the HIV AIDS pandemic in South Africa and the human security concept. The data draws from reports on interactions with cit izens in various townships and cities in the greater Johannesburg Pretoria that were made by researchers in the various reports and researches. The secondary information is interrogated in the order of relevance and the appropriate citations made to support the various opinions and suggestions. An analysis of the various proposed arguments along with personal input on the subject of human security and the HIV/AIDS pandemic will offer a diverse and holistic argument for the security of sanctity and the sanctity of security. The HIV /AIDS is portrayed as a justification for the need to employ this argument in the development and drafting of the various policies and procedures that the government of South Africa adopts and implements (Terrblanche 98). Limitations of the research Human security like all other concepts has the capacity to accommodate al individuals and nations. This in effect leads to a strong limitation in the maximum possible scope that can be covered by a single repor t since it would be infeasible to attempt to accommodate all these players. A further limitation exists in the fact that the research is limited to secondary information that is chosen based on the availability and accessibility of the information. This could lead to a considerable amount of bias (Harvey pp. 53-72). Results and discussion The focal point of this discussion and research are three questions. The first concerns what exactly is security while the second is what exactly sanctity is. The final question goes to ascertain the relationship between AIDS sanctity and security. Human sanctity Sanctity is a representation of the humane individuality in a person. It is an aspect of the person that is considered inherent and an articulation of fulfillment of the person. From an enlightment perspective, sanctity is a representation of the capability of the human to be rational. It is considered to exist as an end to human beings as opposed to being a means. This approach interrogat es sanctity as an end as well as a means for a livelihood to the person. The modernist rationalist as well as the intrinsic human dignity arguments motivates the contrast between these two conceptions as portrayed in the concept of globalization. The responsibility lies in every human to safeguard and protect individual actualization and actively participate in maintaining such actualization. The responsibility of the individual lies in protecting and developing dignity. The individual is under a duty to maintain the economic political and social duty to develop, enable and maintain a suitable economic environment for the livelihood and life beyond living. The individual, the state and corporations have an interdependent duty to create a favorable environment for the development of the intrinsic worth of human life (Hemmati pp. 39-72). Sanctity and freedom Freedom is the ultimate measure of social security and forms the basis. It is an indication of the effectiveness of initiatives undertaken by the individual, corporations and the state in maintaining social security. Security of society by extension offers security to the individual. Social effectiveness therefore presents opportunity for the improvement of the individuals well being. This approach however faces several challenges arising from globalization. The globalization approach disputes individualization of the responsibility to maintain social security and advocates for the need for unified effort for the common good (Sacks 45). This therefore limits the extent to which the individual can exercise their personal freedom without necessarily considering the opinion and of others in the same issue. In the alternative, the individual responsibility can be considered as a social commitment. There exists a collective responsibility to the individual to react to problems of society such as poverty, hunger, inflation, famine as well as the infringement of others socio-political and economic freedoms. By this we recognize the relationship between the personal freedom and the economic social and political balance(Lukes pp. 83-139). The key purpose of this freedom is to guarantee a sustainable livelihood. This therefore creates the individual agency obligation and duty to the various stakeholders to individually cooperate with the collective effort of society to safeguard human security (Stiglitz 78). Human security The basic theme in the relationship between sanctity and security is that sanctity acts as a prerequisite of security while in the alternative; there lies a duty of security to safeguard sanctity. Dignity in this context is considered as an intrinsic sanctity that should be secured at all costs. From a different approach, the need for human security arises due to the lack of such security or otherwise the existence of insecurity. In the contemporary context, there are numerous emerging instances of insecurity majority of which are motivated by economic interests as well as rel ated industrial and technological changes. AIDS falls one among these. The technological revolution has stimulated the rate of change and increased the speed at which societies are flourishing. Human beings on the other hand adapt readily to these changes, a capacity that is fully invested in the human ability to develop and modify their dignity through constant change of their environment and surroundings. Even so, the greater and more intense forces of political and economic pressure more often than not lead to the limitation of access to resources. The mobile modernity continues to worsen this state of affairs by increasing the pressures to the overstretched human security situation. These pressures continue to increase faster than trade its self-taking advantage of globalization. This can be adequately represented by the rate at which AIDS is spreading in South Africa (Nyamnjoh pp. 1-18) Security and development Human development differs greatly from human security in several re spects. While human security operates on the paradigm of human freedom and the capacity for self-actualization. Human development tows the argument for the extrinsic capacity of the individual to modify their environment and surrounding to improve their livelihood as well as that of others (Leftwich pp. 605-624). Human security â€Å"recognizes the conditions that menace survival, the continuation of daily life and the dignity of human beings† (Human Security 10). Human development provides a platform for an increase in the social status of an individual and the elimination of any pertinent un-freedoms. It operates on the premise of an equity-motivated growth in benefits and resources available to the society. It furthers the optimistic conception of self-actualization and the ability to take advantage of opportunity for individual and common good. Despite these varying arguments the human security and human development, there exist a cautious but zealous objective to maintai n human security (Toulmin 39). AIDS, Sanctity and Human Security in South Africa From the basic understanding and interpretation, AIDS is a viral disease of the body and has detrimental effects on its victims. It is considered among the worst health crises of the modern world and has to its name a heavy death toll that continues to increase by the day. In South Africa, it continues to spread faster than a bushfire. Innovative attempts have led to the development and manufacture of a retroviral alternative that serves as a temporary resolve for the infected. This however is not a preventive mechanism but rather maintenance of the situation. Researchers propose a continued increase in the statics in South Africa despite the increasing number of protective measures and investment in the prevention campaign (Polu and Whiteside 67). The virus is transmitted mostly through intimate human interactions that are more common in South African heterosexual society. Motivated by ignorance and la ck of adequate information, the number of virus infections among the adult population continues to increase with a considerable portion of these persons passing the disease to their young ones leading to a continuous cycle of infection (Tutu 57). However, a medical condition, HIV and AIDS appeals to the human capacity to safeguard their dignity and to remain cautious to the destructive potential of the disease to both physical as well as the intrinsic security. From the economic realm, AIDS impedes the capacity and ability of workers to produce and limits the labor resource (Nicholson pp. 163-177). In South Africa AIDS is estimated to reduce the Gross Domestic Product by at least 17 percent by 2020 (Monteiro pp. 1-26). In response to this security concern, the government has instigated contingency measures by securing antiretroviral drugs (Dunn pp. 137-188). This however falls short of the eminent food security and medical treatment concerns that come with the increase in the infect ions. Conclusions And Recommendations. The burden of infection or living an infection free life calls to an individual responsibility. It is apparent that the onset and influence of the Apartheid regime set the stage for the severe increase and prevalence of the HIV and AIDS scourge. All researches interrogated acknowledge a relationship between human sanctity human security and more importantly the place that HIV and AIDS has as a human security demotivator. In effect, the individual has a responsibility to act on and react to HIV and AIDS information to prevent the spread of the virus. In this same spirit, the various stakeholders such as the South African government, individuals and corporation have a duty to act as agents in the common goal and fight to maintain human security by eradicating and the disease (Grindle and Thomas Pp. 95-120). Corporations on their part have duty to provide their employees with adequate access to information on the prevention treatment and control o f the disease both for the security of their interests in terms of productivity and profitability as well as the security of the employees. Booysen, Susan. Transitions and trends in policymaking in democratic South Africa.  Journal of Public Administration, 36(2). (2001) pp. 125-144. Donnelly, Jack. Twentieth-Century Realism. Traditions of International Ethics. Terry Nardin and David R. Mapel, eds. (1992) pp. 85-111. Dunn. William. Public Policy Analysis: An Introduction. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Chapter 5 Structuring Policy Problems, (1994) pp. 137-188. Grindle, Merilee and Thomas, John. Public Policy Choices and Policy Change: The Political Economy of Reform in Developing Countries. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. (1991) pp. 95-120. Harvey, David. â€Å"Spaces of Hope†. Contemporary Globalization, Berkeley: University of California Press. (2002) pp. 53-72. Held, David. Liberalism, Marxism and Democracy. In S. Hall, D. Held and T. McGrew (Eds.) Modernity and its Futures. Cambridge: Open University and Polity Press, (1992) pp. 14-47. Hemmati, Minu. Multi-Stakeholder Processes for Governance and Sustainability. Beyond Deadlock and Conflict. London: Earthscan Publications (2002) pp. 39-72. Human Security – Human Security Now. United Nations. 2003. Web. Leftwich, Adrian. Governance, Democracy and Development in the Third World. Third World Quarterly, 24, 3, (1993) pp. 605-624. Lori, Ashford. How HIV and AIDS affect populations. Washington: Population Reference Bureau. 2011. Print. Lukes, Steven. Power and Authority, in Moral Conflict and Politics. New York: Oxford University Press, (2002) pp. 83-139. Monteiro, Oscar. Public Administration and Management Innovation in Developing Countries. Institutional and Organizational Restructuring of the Civil Service in Developing Countries Paper developed for the UNDP, (2002) pp. 1-26. Nicholson, Norman. Policy Choices and the uses of state power: the work of Theodore J. Lowi. Policy Scienc es. June 2002, Vol. 35(2) (2002) pp. 163-177. Nyamnjoh, Francis. Globalizations, Boundaries, and Livelihoods: Perspectives on Africa. Philosophia Africana, 6, 2, (2003) pp. 1-18. Parsons, Wayne. Public Policy: Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Policy Analysis. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. (1995) pp. 1-83. Patton, Carol and Sawick, David. (2 Edition) Basic Methods of Policy Analysis and Planning. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall (1986) pp. 21-73. Polu, Nana., and Alan, Whiteside. The Political Economy of AIDS in Africa: Ashgate. 2003. Print. Sacks, Jonathan. Dignity of Difference: How to Avoid the Clash of Civilizations. London and New York: Continuum. 2003. Print. Stiglitz, Joseph. Globalization and Its Discontents. New York: W.W. Norton and Company. 2003. Print. Strode, Ann and Kitty Barrett. Understanding the institutional dynamics of South Africa’s response to the HIV AND AIDS pandemic. A report of the Governance and AIDS Programme of the Institute for Democracy in So uth Africa, supported by the Ford Foundation. Pretoria, South Africa: Institute for Democracy in South Africa (IDASA). 2004. Terrblanche, Solomon. A History of Inequality in South Africa 1652-2002. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press. 2002. Toulmin, Stephen. Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.1990. Tutu, Desmond. God Has a Dream. Johannesburg, South Africa: Rider.2004.

Ways for Students to Go Green on Campus

Ways for Students to Go Green on Campus There are so many things to take care of at college: studies, relationships with fellow students, making time for you job, homework and partying. The list is far from being complete. Nevertheless, one thing appears to be missing: paying attention to the world around you. In fact, you can apply environmentally-friendly mindset in different spheres of your college activities. Dont worry though: with the tips weve collected it wont take too long. Plus, you may even have fun with it! Study Hall Technology may be of great help in terms of being environmentally aware. Theres no need to turn to super-complicated gimmicks at the very beginning. You can do something as simple as take notes on your laptop or tablet during lectures. Lots of people type faster than they write anyway. So why not try to cut down on use of paper and make learning process more efficient? Plus, you can find plenty of awesome note-taking tools on the web. Moving Around Youre not a threat to the environment, in case your study facilities are within walking distance. In case youve got to face the challenge of commute on a daily basis, theres a field for improvement. You are free to choose something from a pretty wide range of options: get a bike, opt for public transport instead of driving on your own or carpool. These options will definitely add colors to your life: youll get an unprecedented chance to get fitter, make new friends and, most importantly, cut down on your carbon dioxide emissions. Furnishing the Room This one will come in handy to those, going to live in a dorm. Instead of spending tons of money to buy brand-new stuff for your new home, go for the used things. This initiative is beneficial for a number of reasons: less things will end up on a dump, youll save the money and gain an opportunity to unleash your creativity. Who says used stuff has to be old and ugly? Get some decorating materials and go wild! Another thing you could do here is to get energy efficient light bulbs. Not only they are a great way to save energy but also to minimize the number of errands to run, as youll have to buy them much less frequently. Dining Hall We are what we eat. We also are how we eat. You can follow the environmentally-friendly direction in a number of ways. First, you can join a clean plate campaign. The meaning is that you are to take the amount of food youre definitely able to finish. It helps reduce the level of food waste and gradually teach you to be a more reasonable consumer. Second, you can go further and talk to the nutritionist in your college to know exactly what goes into your meals and where it comes from. Buying seasonal and local products is a powerful tool of being healthier and contributing to the reduction of negative impact of industrial farming onto the climate change. Third, you should learn to avoid buying bottled water in a cafeteria. Get a refillable one and renew the supply in a water fountain. Less plastic garbage, cleaner land and air and a stylish accessory in your backpack – sounds like goals, doesnt it? Shopping Can you count all the plastic bags, youve brought home from the mall by now? Most probably, there will be a huge pile of these. Next time you go shopping, choose yourself a nice reusable bag. Youll obviously cut down on plastic waste and may even develop smarter consumer habits: why would you buy another not-that-necessary thing, if it doesnt fit into your bag? Once again, benefit both for the nature and the wallet. Shower Depending on the equipment, installed in your shower facilities, a single shower may use up to 50 gallons of water. Think of the volumes you can save, having reduced showering time to 5 minutes? Or else, having turned off the water, when shampooing or soaping? The change can be massive. Youre the one to do the switch. Everywhere Reuse and recycle. As much as possible. The stuff you throw away often turns into a toxic layer, wrapped around our planet. Looking for textbooks for a new academic year, try to find the used ones and pass them to the next generations. Use the print-outs you get as a place to take notes, draw or write your â€Å"to-do† lists for the day. Sort the trash, if your campus or neighborhood offers such an opportunity. Pick the good brands, using local and organic materials to produce their goods. The ways to go green are numerous. Pick the one to your liking and follow it. Doing something useful actually feels good. Dont rid yourself of that!

Manifest Destiny Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Manifest Destiny - Essay Example In 1845, America considered that it was ordained to its increase democratic institutions beyond its own borders and into North America, and Manifest Destiny was given as the support for this belief. It was considered that this expansion would give the United States a strong moral right to govern throughout North America, where the belief was not respected. One way of describing the concept is that set forth by William E. Weeks. He proposed that there were three themes within Manifest Destiny. The first was the virtue of Americans and their institutions, the second was that these institutions had a mission to aid America in restructuring the entire world and finally the third was that this was inevitable and a matter of destiny. One area where the concept of Manifest Destiny played a major role was during the time in which Texas announced independence from Mexico and planned to join as a new state in United States of America. According to O'Sullivan, this was the crucial time in the p rocess of expansion for the United States, as new policy had been created which meant that any state that was independent could request entry into the Union. This legislation worked in favor of those who believed in Manifest Destiny. However, the concept was not widely accepted. For example, not all American’s believed that the country should expand in such a way. In addition, the expansion of the Americans within the United States had a significantly negative impact on the Native Americans, as their land was being encroached on.

Ancient culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ancient culture - Essay Example Also, the civilizations were laddered and followed through a hierarchy. The kings called for extending their territories, hence, subsequently formed a territorial organization that guaranteed their ascendancy and supremacy. The early civilizations have expanded to the following civilizations with the emergence of Greece that greatly influenced the Roman Empire that survived for roughly 1,300 years. [Last Name] 2 recovered are the Warka Vase, the Mycenae and the Capitoline Wolf. â€Å"The Warka Vase or alternatively called as Uruk Vase, is a carved alabaster stone vessel found in the temple complex of the Sumerian goddess Inanna.† It is deemed to be one of the oldest extant works that was believed to have predominantly existed from 3,200 to 3000 BC. It was carved with symbolical details like some cultivated grains, oxen and nude males that implied thievery and renewal. The second artwork is the Mycenae which is an archaeological spot in Greece. It is located about 90 km south west and is bounded by two Greek cities: Argos in the south and Corinth which is 48 km towards the north. Its name, Mycenae, was actually a re-enacted name for its ancient name Mukanai. Albeit it was erected by the people of Greece, its name was taken from some pre-Greek settlers. The third and last artwork is the Capitoline Wolf. It is one of the most symbolical artworks during the prehistoric time s. â€Å"It is a 5th century BC Etruscan statue that is made of bronze cast in the lower Tiber valley.† On it is a female wolf â€Å"suckling a pair of human twin boys, representing the legendary founders of the city of Rome.† All three artworks were identical in motive, that is, essentially symbolical in nature that depicts supreme powers as well as exploitation and an accompanying reformation on the ancient civilizations. Nevertheless, unlike the Warka Vase and the Capitoline Wolf, the second

Aristotelian Universals and Platonic Universals Essay

Aristotelian Universals and Platonic Universals - Essay Example Conflict of Universals: Conflict of universals or problem of universals is quite a long debated issue among the philosophers. The basic point of argument remains the same whether the universals exist or not. There has always been an attempt to ' "account for the phenomenon of similarity or attribute agreement among things." Whether a table made of rock or a stone both are similar or both have attributive agreement, having the common characteristic of hardness. This problem has given birth to two different disciplines in philosophy, namely, Realism and Nominalism. The realists are of opinion that universals exist on account of attributive agreement and Nominnalists opine that universals are non existent because they cannot explain attributive agreement among particulars. Platonic Universals: The idea of Platonic universals sometimes appears to be obscure or fruitless but his theory is one of the major foundations for epistemology and metaphysics. According to Plato, a universal is independent, non temporal and non spatial. A universal is something that cannot be perceived by senses and its knowledge comes through thought. The objects of thought that independently exist, establish the foundation for Platonic universals. ... But this very attribute of greenness is not something tangible and it cannot be experienced through senses. But at the same time Plato also specified that the green color of grass is not the only virtue that distinguishes it from other green colored in the world. Grass is never a leaf of a tree. In addition to its greenness, the grass is grass due to its unique attributes. Thus, by adopting the theory of Platonic universals, an individual can make clear distinction between all particulars in the world. Aristotelian Universals: Plato's disciple Aristotle came up with a very different idea about universals and the theory of Aristotelian universals produces a landmark solution to the problem of universals and conflict between realists and nominalists. According to Aristotle, universals can simply be classified into three categories, Relations, Types and Properties. The great philosopher further stated that universals exist in those places only where they are exemplified or instantiated and they only exist in things, never apart from things. Aristotle clearly stated that a universal is "'identical in each of its instances." So, in simple terms, Aristotle's theory says all green things in this universe are similar as there is a same universal or attribute, i.e greenness. This unique approach of Aristotelian theory removes several puzzles from the theories of universals in the metaphysical context. First, according to Aristotle, universals can be exemplified several times. He repeatedly emphasizes over the conception of "'one and the same universal" that, according to him, can be witnessed in every particulars. Now at this point common perception experiences a problem. It is hard to believe for an

Determinants of capital structure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Determinants of capital structure - Essay Example es statement of financial position, cash flow statement as well as statement of income of many existing and extinct companies based all over the world. Initially, a great deal of effort was made to define the independent and dependent variable required for the purpose of regression analysis. The regression analysis that has been done in this particular study is based upon gearing measures. Thus, in order to conduct this analysis, alternative definitions of gearing have been explained in the following paragraphs. Non-equity liabilities to total assets: The book value of this gearing ratio is the ratio between the total debt plus trade credit and equivalent to total assets (equation 1). The market value of this gearing measure can be calculated by adjusting the value of the total assets, deducting the book value of equity and adding the market value of equity (equation 2). The equation can be represented as follows: According to Rajan and Zingales (1995), the gearing measure serves as a proxy for the liquidation value of a company. The authors also argued that the value of this indicator may be significantly inflated, as it may only represent financial transactions, instead of assets. Debt to Total Assets: This gearing measure is the ratio between the total debts to total assets (equation 3). The market value of this multiple is determined by adjusting the asset, by deducting the book value of equity and adding the market value of equity (equation 4) (Phillips, Libby and Libby, 2011; Fridson and Alvarez, 2011). The equation can be represented as follows: Debt to Capital: This gearing measure is the ratio between the total debts to capital. The capital in the denominator represents the total debt plus the equity, which includes the preference shares as well (equation 5) (Rose and Hudgins, 2008). The market value of this gearing measure is calculated by adjusting market value of equity, instead of adjusting the book value of equity (equation 6). The equation can be

Macro Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Macro Economics - Essay Example The focus shifts from expenditure to save more of the current income for future spending. Thus in reacting to this less expenditure on the part of the consumers and the investors the firm will lower their production resulting in less output. Reduction in the wage rate of the workers in this circumstance will not contribute to the elimination of the huge unemployment rate prevailing in the economy. Simultaneous decrease in the interest rates in the economy will also not succeed in returning the economy back in the original track (Gwartney, Stroup, Sobel and MacPherson, 228). Wages and interest rates are considered fixed in the Keynesian theory. According to the theory even if there is a decline in the wage rate a negative impact will be exerted on the economy through the reduction in income and hence reduction in aggregate demand. Keynesian theory rejects the view of the classical economists that market forces will bring back the system of full employment in the economy. Equilibrium i n the economy will be reached when the total spending in the economy will be equal to the total output. Changes in output may drive the economy to a certain extent towards the equilibrium as opposed to price changes as suggested by the other stream of economists.

Critical Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Critical Analysis - Essay Example disharmonious because in a democracy individual citizens have to make difficult political choices, with no guarantees that the choice is the correct solution. It is also disharmonious because the end results of public deliberations in any community on a controversial subject will differ, because of the autonomy that each individual enjoys in a democratic society. It is the perception of the author that disharmony in a democratic society will ebb only when there is mutual respect in the political choices made by the different individuals that make up the society. Quoting from Schumpeter 1943 p. 269, the author presents the understanding of democracy from the perspective of Schumpeter as â€Å"that institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for peoples vote†. The author argues against this understanding of democracy. While pointing out to the strength of this understanding of democracy through its recognition of the basis of democracy in the competition for the votes of the people, the author derides its lack of projecting any value for the process of competing for the vote of the people. The author uses the example of the apartheid regime in South Africa and the rule of the Communist dictator Stalin to reinforce this argument. The author finds further support from Robert Dahl, 1989, who argues that such an understanding of democracy does not differentiate from autocracy. The author proposes that populist democracy as an understanding of is founded on the basis of â€Å"people ruling themselves as free and equal beings rather than being ruled by an external power or by a self-elected minority among themselves.† In other words the stress in populist democracy is on the will of the people. To this end then there are built in constraints to ensure that decisions in the democratic society reflect popular will. An example of this is in the rule of law, as against the

Macro Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Macro Economics - Essay Example The focus shifts from expenditure to save more of the current income for future spending. Thus in reacting to this less expenditure on the part of the consumers and the investors the firm will lower their production resulting in less output. Reduction in the wage rate of the workers in this circumstance will not contribute to the elimination of the huge unemployment rate prevailing in the economy. Simultaneous decrease in the interest rates in the economy will also not succeed in returning the economy back in the original track (Gwartney, Stroup, Sobel and MacPherson, 228). Wages and interest rates are considered fixed in the Keynesian theory. According to the theory even if there is a decline in the wage rate a negative impact will be exerted on the economy through the reduction in income and hence reduction in aggregate demand. Keynesian theory rejects the view of the classical economists that market forces will bring back the system of full employment in the economy. Equilibrium i n the economy will be reached when the total spending in the economy will be equal to the total output. Changes in output may drive the economy to a certain extent towards the equilibrium as opposed to price changes as suggested by the other stream of economists.

Gun Laws Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Gun Laws - Essay Example Gun laws critically account for individual and social security concerns. This role, however, is not without its negative aspect. This is in line with the fact that not every individual or potential gun owner qualifies to own a gun. Gun ownership requirements are strictly adhered to in order to minimize saturation of guns in among individuals (Lott, 2010). Amid this, guns provide a sense of security to the owners and people among them. Therefore, gun laws are essential in that regard. Regulation of gun ownership also ensures that only the most deserving people are approved, thereby reducing the possibility of misuse of guns. Antisocial behaviors constitute another aspect that guns critically account for. Laws are put in place to minimize or alleviate altogether illegal possession of guns. Individuals found owning guns against the law are prosecuted. In this regard, gun laws contribute towards mainstreaming social welfare and social coherence among people by regulating or controlling their conduct in this line (Lott, 2010). A challenge in this pursuit is the ability of people to acquire guns to serve other purposes other than their safety and security. Crime perpetrators use guns to threaten others in times of crime. In the light of regulation of guns through relevant laws, this is used to counter attack gun laws efforts. Failure to account for the majority populations in the licensing of guns is a bone of contention in relation to gun laws. Gun possession favors the minority rich and the so called VIPs like prominent businessmen, political leaders, and celebrities among others (Lott, 2010). However, security concerns that lead to the formulation and implementation of gun laws are experienced across the populations, and every single individual is equally vulnerable. Although there places where gun laws seek to integrate all persons subject to approval,

Autistic Spectrum Disorder And Offending Behaviour Psychology Essay

Autistic Spectrum Disorder And Offending Behaviour Psychology Essay Speculation is evident within both popular media and scientific literature regarding a possible association in the relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour. The possible presence of antisocial and criminal behaviour in a sub-sample of individuals with Asperger syndrome has been of high interest to both psychological research and the general public. The research reviewed within this study suggests that people with Autistic spectrum disorders are potentially over-represented within the criminal justice system. However an accurate prevalence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome both within the general population and the criminal justice system is yet to be established as findings between studies are varied. It has been suggested that an individual with Autistic Spectrum disorder who has offending behaviour will be more likely to commit violent, sexual or arson-related crime however there is limited research to support this. Additionally it d oes appear that certain characteristics such as co-morbid psychiatric symptoms are important risk factors Introduction Debbaudt (2004) described how individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder are seven times more likely to experience contact with the criminal justice system than the general population. Howlin (2004) argues that the perceived link between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour can be explained by sensational media reporting. Specific stories have highlighted the Asperger syndrome status of offenders in their reports of crime. However the apparent association with offending has been generated by sensationalised, unsubstantiated in diagnostic terms , media reports. News headlines such as Autistic Boy killed baby brother, Apergers Boy locked up for Rape and A 15 year-old boy with Aspergers Syndrome ahs been locked up for an indeterminate period for raping an 8 year-old boy and photographing the attack can be extremely harmful to peoples perceptions of ASD (BBC News, 2001, BBC News, 2007a, Birmingham Post 2007). The purpose of this article is to review what literature is available relating to Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Offending Behaviour. Specifically this article will review what is meant by Autistic Spectrum Disorder, the prevalence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder within the Criminal Justice System, prevalence of offending behaviour in offenders with Autistic Spectrum Disorder, the characteristics of Autistic Spectrum Disorder that might make individuals more vulnerable to offending and the types of crime most associated with the disorder. Additionally there will be a focus on the relevant treatment and policy implications for clinicians and support staff working with this unique population. In order to identify all known studies investigating the relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour a search was conducted of the databases Psych Info, Academic Search Complete and Google Scholar using the key terms Autis* and Crim*, Asperg* and Offen* within the parameters of 1985 to current issues. A search was also conducted regarding News and popular media sites using the key words of Autism, Asperger, offend/offending and Crime. All of the studies are organised in Table 1. Defining Autistic Spectrum Disorders Before examining prevalence rates it is important to define what is meant by Autistic Spectrum Disorder. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM-IV) (APA, 1994) categories of pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) are autistic disorder, Asperger Syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). The criteria (DSM-IV) for Autistic Spectrum Disorder include a core triad of impairments. These are impairments in social interaction, social communication and social imagination including restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. There is variance in diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome between DSM-IV and ICD-10. The term Autistic Spectrum Disorder is widely accepted in research and literature. The idea of the autistic spectrum is clinically useful as it illustrates the variation in symptomatology both among and within each diagnostic category. This range can include mild to very severe symptoms in each of the areas of impairment that categorise Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Those on the lower functioning end of the spectrum, such as those with classic autism, may never learn to talk using words, struggle to develop or maintain meaningful relationships and have very ritualistic/obsessional behaviour. Those on the higher functioning end of the spectrum, such as those with AS may have IQ within the average range, be verbally fluent and can be capable of leading independent lives given some support. The majority of literature regarding the relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour has focused on individuals of whom have a diagnosis or show indicators of Asperger syndrome. Langstrom et al (2009) explored characteristrics associated with violent offending among individuals diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorders over a 13 year period taking information from swedish national registers. They found that criminal violence was more common among participants diagnosed with Asperger syndrome relative to participants with autistic disorder. They attributed this factor to the reasoning that those with Asperger syndrome are more likely to have unimpaired intellectual ability, better social skills. It was also concluded that those with Autistic disorder are more likely to live in supervised settings where staff or others may help to resolve conflicts or manage anger. The fact that research study examines both autistic spectrum disorder and Asperger syndrome m ake drawing conclusions and comparisons extremely difficult. Asperger syndrome is defined as a condition which has many features of Autistic Spectrum Disorder however it is displayed in persons of average or above average intelligence. Gillberg (2002) describes features such as a tendency to engage in monologues or special interests around narrow interests, limited or inappropriate non-verbal communication and a compulsive need for routine. The term Theory of Mind has been used to describe the psychological dysfunction underlying the triad of impairments shared by all people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (Wing, 1996). Theory of mind describes the ability to be able to put oneself in the position of another and be able to appreciate their feelings, wants and wishes. This inability to empathise and put yourself in someone elses shoes means that those with Asperger syndrome, like those with other forms of Autistic Spectrum Disorder, are unable to judge the probable actions or responses of others (Browning Caulfield, 2011). Many studies support the view that the majority of those with Autistic Spectrum Disorders and Asperger syndrome are law abiding and that very few engage in illicit criminalised behaviour. The very features of AS mean that the vast majority of this section of the population are very pedantic in their adherence to the law due to their literal thinking (Wing, 1997, Murrie et al. 2002, Myers, 2004). It may be that speculative assumptions that those with Autistic Spectrum Disorders or Asperger syndrome possess a greater propensity towards violent criminality is generated through media reporting and both factual and fictional film, television and radio. There are relatively few people in the public eye with an Autistic Spectrum Disorder however the reporting of rare acts of violence within the media is potentially harmful serving only to assist in the creation of inaccurate perceptions of affected individuals ( Browning Caulfield, 2011). An accurate prevalence of Asperger syndrome within the general population is yet to be established as findings between studies are varied. Research has indicated the prevalence of Asperger syndrome to be between 2 and 60 per 10,000 (Gillberg 1991, Wing 1996). Murphy, (2003) reported that there is evidence that 3-4 in every 100 children may develop Aspergers syndrome and there is general agreement that the prevalence of Asperger syndrome is low. Current statistics provided by the National Autistic Society estimate that the prevalence of all Autistic Spectrum Disorders in the UK is approximately 1% (NAS, 2008). Attempts to assess the violence and criminality rate have also been made more difficult due to the low prevalence and problems relating to gaining valid diagnosis of Aspergers Syndrome. It must also be recognised that additional problems in this field may stem from specific difficulties. People with Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Aspergers syndrome within the criminal justice system may be being misdiagnosed and being given other labels such psychosis. There may be a form of societal reluctance to link specific disorders within criminality thus meaning an under-estimation of prevalence is given. Berney (2004) also considers the idea that there is an increasing unwillingness within the UK to pursue prsecution unless there is a high possibility of conviction. Data may also not be taking into account large numbers of people who do not enter the criminal justice system as they are subject to diversion or do not get charged (Hawk et al. (1993). Some researchers have proposed that the core features of Autistic Spectrum Disorder such as abnormal development of social interaction and development may expose those on the spectrum to commit offending (Haskins and Silva, 2006). However this does not mean that having Autistic Spectrum Disorder enhances the likelihood of offending. Researchers have used a range of different strategies in order to study any possible association between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending. Prevalence of persons with Autistic Spectrum Disorder in the Criminal Justice System In order to better understand if there is any relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour some researchers have focused on Autistic Spectrum Disorder among those who have already been or are still in the criminal justice system. Scragg and Shah (1994) considered a hypothesis that there may exist co-morbid neurological disorders in those with Asperger syndrome that may be an underlying factor of violent acts committed. Their research examined the entire male population (n=392) of Broadmoor hospital using methods such as interviewing staff and patients and screening case notes. They found a prevalence rate for Asperger syndrome of 1.5% significantly exceeding the prevalence rate of 0.36% found by Elthers and Gillberg (1993) in the general population using the same diagnostic criteria. Siponmaa et al (2001) conducted a retrospective study where a much higher prevalence rate of ASD among offenders was found in Sweden. The researchers reviewed case notes of 126 mentally disordered offenders and found that 15% had pervasive developmental disorder, 12% had pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified/atypical autism and 3% had Asperger syndrome. However these results cannot be generalised to offender populations as the sample was recruited from a forensic population of offenders who have a mental disorder requiring treatment and the majority had committed violent offences. Hare et al (1999) examined the prevalence of individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorders within three hospitals in the UK. They found that 67.7% of the total Autistic spectrum disorder population of these prisons had Asperger syndrome. The rough prevalence estimate was 1.6% supporting the hypothesis that there is an over representation of people with Autistic spectrum disorder and in particular Asperger syndrome within forensic hospitals in the UK. In contrast Myers (2004) found very low numbers of individuals with autistic spectrum disorders in secure forensic and specialist settings in Scotland. Through examination of the number of people with learning disabilities with or without Asperger syndrome their findings indicate a prevelance estimate of 0.93% in the prison service; 0.46% in secure units and 1.39% in mental health units It must be recognised that prevalence studies have typically been restricted to highly specialised settings and therefore highly selected samples such as those at Broodmoor prison and secure services (Scragg and Shah,1994). There also appears to be a lack of research which has investigated the prevalence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder in general populations of people who had committed crime. Additionally there is also a failure to acknowledge that the offending behaviour of their research participants could potentially be attributed to other risk factors commonly associated with offending within the general population such as co-morbid mental health issues or social circumstances. There is large variability in prevalence rates across the discussed studies however there does appear to be some sort of association between autistic spectrum disorder and offending behaviour. Differences in types of diagnosis may account for some of the varying prevalence rates between different countries.Even specific studies involving highly specialised settings have found that a diagnosis of Autistic Spectrum Disorder had not been previously made for the majority; making this study of general populations even more difficult. . In making a diagnosis of Autistic Spectrum Disorder this can help in the understanding of reasons that crimes may have taken place and can help to decide on appropriate methods of care and management Detection of Autistic Spectrum Disorder in childhood/adolescence could provide opportunity to manage pre-disposing factors to offending behaviour. In the absence of such systems it could be argued that individuals with an Autistic Spectrum Disorder are at incre ased risk of developing offending behaviours. See Table 1 for an overview of the prevalence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder found in studies within both forensic and community settings Prevalence of Offending Behaviour in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder When reviewing the research a further method of investigating the relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour has been to examine the prevalence of offending behaviour in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder. The question of whether or not a person with Autistic spectrum disorder may be more likely to offend will provide richer information around any possible association. Hippler et al, (2009), completed a study to examine criminal offending in 177 former patients of Hans Asperger. No increased rate of registered convictions was found compared to the general population suggesting that people with Aspergers syndrome are not more likely to commit offences. Mourisden et al, (2008) looked at the prevalence of offending behaviours in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder compared to typically developing controls using the Danish Criminal Register. Register data offers opportunity to analyse data from large populations in a historical, prospective way avoiding recall bias. Overall results found that 9% from the Autistic Spectrum Disorder group and 18% from the comparison group had convictions. This study suggests that rates of convictions are actually lower in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder than in the general population. The research also indicated that criminal offences are very uncommon in childhood autism but more common in Aspergers syndrome. Allen et als (2008) study investigated the prevalence of Asperger syndrome and offending within a large geographical area. A survey methodology was used to identify adults with a recorded clinical diagnosis of Asperger syndrome in the South Wales area of the UK. The services contacted included mental health teams, local health practitioners, forensic practitioners and learning disability teams. Their results were generally not supportive of there being a significant association between Asperger syndrome and offending, attributing this to methodological problems including individuals with learning disabilities skewering the data, the focus on adults and misdiagnosis. Woodbury-Smith et al. (2006) identified that previous research had focused specifically on violent offending and suggested a need for community based research. Their reasoning was that statistical findings of research conducted within high security psychiatric or forensic settings only represented the prevalence of very serious offences therefore failing to be more representative of more generalised common-place criminality. They responded by conducting a study of offending by those with Asperger syndrome and Autistic Spectrum Disorders in the community. Although it must be acknowledged that the sample size was very small it was the first to look at offending patterns of individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorders in the community. Their findings found that the level of offending occurring within the Autistic Spectrum Disorder group was lower than that of the neuro-typical group. Issues with these particular studies include the difficulties that some studies have such small, unrepresentative samples that make any estimates of prevalence epidemiologically insubstantial. Consequently whilst these studies do not give a true picture, this limited evidence also suggests that individuals with classic autistic disorder are very unlikely to offend and those with a diagnosis of Asperger syndrome are no more likely to offend than people in the general population. Table 1 Prevalence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder studies within both forensic and community settings Study No. of participants Prevalence estimation Ghaziuddin et al (1991) Review of 132 published case studies 2.27% Scragg and Shah (1994) 392 1.5%-2.3% Hare et al. (1999) 22 1.6% Sipionmaa (2001) 135 15% diagnosed with ASD Myers (2004) 0.46% in secure psychiatric units 0.93% in the prison service 1.39% in mental health units Mouridson (2008) 313 0.89% Hippler et al (2009) 177 No increased prevalence compared to the general population Predisposing Risk Factors of Autistic Spectrum Disorder that might make a person more vulnerable to offending In order to examine if there is any relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour it is important to investigate whether there are any innate vulnerabilities that make it more likely that a person with Autistic Spectrum Disorder will offend. It must also be recognised that general vulnerability factors as identified in criminological literature such as low IQ, poor school achievement and Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder will still all be relevant (Farrington, 2002). More general knowledge within this area will enhance both preventative programmes and forms of treatment and rehabilitation. Woodbury- Smith et al. (2006) completed an exploratory study where participants were recruited from different sources in the UK. These adult groups included 21 individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and a history of offending, 23 individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and no history of offending and a general population group of 23 people without Autistic Spectrum Disorder and no history of offending. Cognition areas known to be impaired in people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder such as theory of mind and emotional recognition were compared. Results showed that the Autistic Spectrum Disorder offenders showed a significantly greater impairment in the recognition of emotional expressions of fear, but no difference in theory of mind, executive function, and recognition of facial expressions of sadness. This finding indicates that this lack of ability to recognise fear in others may cause individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder to continue behaviour that is distressing to o thers thus possibly increasing the likelihood of offending. Langstrom et al (2009), used data from Swedish longitudinal registers for 422 individuals hospitalised with Autistic Spectrum Disorder during a thirteen year period . Their research compared those committing violent or sexual offences with those who did not. Their results found that violent individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder are generally male and diagnosed with Asperger syndrome rather than Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Conclusions also found that violent offending in Autistic Spectrum Disorder is related to similar co-occurring psychopathology as found in violent individuals without Autistic Spectrum Disorder, Limitations to this study must be cautiously interpreted as the sample was based on being hospitalised and are again therefore not necessarily representative of all individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder in the community There are very few reports that investigate the importance of co-morbid psychiatric factors when understanding if any relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour exists. Newman and Ghaziuddin (2008), reviewed 37 published cases with violent behaviour and AS in respect to concurrent psychiatric disorders and found that 29.7% of the reviewed cases had a definite psychiatric disorder whilst 54.0% had a probable psychiatric disorder. Subsequently when offending occurs within an individual with Autistic Spectrum Disorder it is important to exclude other psychiatric conditions because these can independently influence the risk of offending, as it does in the general population. Murphys (2003) study examined in the setting of a high-security psychiatric hospital whether male patients with AS could be distinguished from patients with personality disorder or schizophrenia on the basis of admission and neuropsychological details. This study adds to the review of research on Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour as exploratory comparisons found that patients with Asperger syndrome were less likely to have a history of alcohol or illicit substance abuse and had lower index violence rations. Qualitative observations in this study suggested that whilst circumstances varied, offending behaviour tended to be associated with particular problems such as externalised misplaced blame, difficulty understanding consequence of their actions and difficulty with prospective taking. Murphy (2006) compared in-patients with schizophrenia, personality disorder and Aspergers syndrome in Broadmoor high security psychiatric hospital. The research indicated that those with AS were less likely to have histories of substance abuse or alcohol misuse and their offences had lower violence ratings than those of other patient groups. Palermo, (2004) examined the relationship between complex developmental disorders and delinquency by analysing three adult patients with Pervasive Developmental Disorder whose admission to hospital was precipitated by criminal behaviour. The patients all shared similar difficulties including struggling to understand social cues, showing mannerisms ad prosodic oddities and all had the presence of a major psychiatric illness whilst meeting the diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome. Their findings found that the reported behaviours resulted from co-morbid psychopathology and not as a direct consequence of a developmental disorder. Howlin (2004) suggests that the innate levels of empathy may be associated in particular with violent and sexual offending. Additionally Haskins and Silva, 2006. discuss how the illegal behaviours of a person with Asperger syndrome are predominantly associated with either a deficient theory of mind or an intense preoccupation with a narrow interest. The term weak central coherence refers to the detail focused processing style that is proposed to characterise autism spectrum disorders (Happe and Frith, 2006). A persistent preoccupation with parts of objects is one of the diagnostic criteria for autistic disorder in current practice (DSM-IV, 1994) Subsequently it has been proposed that this weak central coherence may make it difficult for an individual with Autistic spectrum disorder to think about the consequence of their actions. To confirm factors that predispose a person to commit a particular type of crime, further large scale, longitudinal prospective studies are needed. See Table 2 Table 2 Factors mediating offending in Autistic Spectrum Disorders in key studies Study Factors mediating offending in AS Murphy (2003) externalised misplaced blame difficulty understanding consequence of actions difficulty with prospective taking Barry-Walsh and Mullen (2004) narrow focus and preoccupation with a special interest Palermo (2004) struggling to understand social cues Co-morbid psychopathology Lack of empathy Howlin (2004) innate levels of empathy Happe Frith (2006) weak central coherence Haskins and Silva, (2006) deficient theory of mind An intense preoccupation with a narrow interest. Woodbury-Smith et al. (2006) significantly greater impairment in the recognition of emotional expressions of fear Newman and Ghaziuddin (2008) Co-morbid Psychiatric factors Allen et al (2008) Lack of concern and awareness Social naivety Impulsivity and mis-interpretation of the rules Overriding obsessions Types of Crime most associated with the disorder It is difficult to ascertain the types of offending behaviour in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder due to the lack of valid epidemiologic studies. Clinical studies within the case study literature have also explored the hypothesised relationship between Autism and Offending behaviour. The offense type most commonly described within these studies tends to be sexual offences, arson and violent offenses. Studies of single cases and referred samples can provide indications of the types of offending which may be found in people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (Baron-Cohen, 1988, Barry-Walsh Mullen, 2004, Haskins Silva, 2006, Murrie et al. 2002, Schartz-Watts 2005). Mawson et al, (1985) case study focused on a 44 year old man cataloguing a series of strange violent behaviours including dropping a firework into a girls car, assaulting a crying baby at a railway station by putting his hand over its mouth to stop the noise, following a female teacher, getting close to her at every possibility. The authors speculate that there is an association between Asperger syndrome and violent behaviour however they do not put the offences in context of the mans diagnosis and significant impairments including sensory, theory of mind and inability to read social situations. Palermos, (2004) case studies behaviours respectively included threatening to kill a police officer, threatening to burn down a family members house and touching a prepubescent boy at a playground. Several case reports associated with Arson and Asperger syndrome have appeared in the literature. Mouridsen et als, (2007) study looked at the prevalence of offending behaviours in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder compared to typically developing controls and found that only arson statistically separated Asperger syndrome cases from the comparison group. Haskins and Silva (2006), discuss a range of particular cases highlighting specific issues that might make a person with Autistic Spectrum Disorder have heightened risk for engaging in criminal behaviour. One reviewed case history involved a young man who was accused of starting a fire in his apartment to obtain insurance money. This fire killed his young daughter and nearly killed his wife. Additionally Sionmaa et al, (2001) reported that 10 (63%) of 16 crimes of Arson were perpetrated by individuals with AS. Barry-Walsh and Mullen, (2004), reported on two cases that had a history of fire-starting. Reasons for the offence of arson vary within each study however it is hypothesised that a major reason includes the narrowed fixations that some people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder may have and the lack of understanding of consequences and reasoning. It could be suggested that Arson may be more specifically related to behaviours seen in Autistic Spectrum Disorder . Epidemiological studies indicate that people with AS do commit sexual offences (Hare, 1999; Murphy 2003) but there is evidence that the rates of sex offending and child sex offences in particular are lower than in general populations ( Hare, 1999, Elvish, 2007). It has been suggested that individuals with Asperger syndrome display criminal behaviour due to their sexual preoccupations. Cases include that of a 21 year old male who had a history of stealing cotton lingerie and masturbating whilst holding womens night-dresses (Chesterman Rutter, 1993) and a young male with Asperger syndrome who had a history of recurrent sexual offences including touching the privates of young women; watching women in toilets and making obscene phone-calls (Milton et al, 2002). It appears that when individuals with autistic spectrum disorder do commit crimes they are less likely to involve alcohol, substance misuse and/or drugs (OBrian Bell, 2001). Additionally the offences of individuals with autistic spectrum disorder did not generally provide any direct gain to the individual. Wahlund Kristiannsson (2006) investigated 35 male offenders with diagnosis of ASD or anti-social behaviour referred for psychiatric assessment in Sweden. It was found that those with autistic spectrum disorder were less likely to be intoxicated and did not use knives or guns as frequently as the personality disorder group. It was also hypothesised that individuals with autistic spectrum disorders may offend at an earlier age than other neuro-typical offenders as difficulties in social interaction will start to be marked in early adulthood and youth resulting in a higher risk of offending behaviour. Recommendations to support individuals with ASD with Offending Behaviour There must be recognition that a number of people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder are involved with the criminal justice system whether that be as victims, witnesses or perpetrators of crime. Professionals working within the CJS must be educated regarding the unique diversity that may be found within people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder in order to improve the likelihood that these individuals will be treated more appropriately. Tiffin Nadkarni (2010) discuss how specialised assessments can identify risk factors associated with violent behaviour even if social and communication problems consistent with an Autistic Spectrum Disorder are present. However there is recognition that these tools compliment but do not replace structured clinical assessment. Subsequently a formulation of risk that recognises complexity but accepts limitations enables useful management plans to be made. The treatment of vulnerable groups within the criminal justice system has been focused on within specific research and it must be recognised that the process of arrest, questioning and trial may be more difficult for a person with Asperger syndrome then others. Difficulties may include misinterpreting what they hear, being unable to function effectively in unpractised, unfamiliar environments and using words without fully understanding their meaning (Mayes, 2003, Barry-Walsh and Mullen, 2004) Subsequently these difficulties may be considered to be the individual being un